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Linguistics, Cultural Background, and Comprehension

4. Classroom Practice Implications of Second Language Acquisition Theory

With the demise of Behaviorism as a theory undergirding classroom practice, particularly in the teaching of English as a Second Language, educators are wise to focus on the following:

  • The ability of the student to comprehend what is said, and to respond to what is said or asked without necessarily understanding all the words.
  • The ability of the student to make him/herself understood, even if ungrammatically.
  • The negotiations that develop linguistic competence and confidence through interactions with native-English speakers (teachers and fellow students).

The strategies that have been shown to be most effective in the classroom include:

  • Differentiated instruction that offers a variety of word contexts, chunked text (short readings), and rewritten text appropriate for the students' stage of language development.
  • Scaffolding of content through the use of graphic organizers and tiering tasks into manageable chunks.
  • Use of group work through the form of peer review, editing centers, writing centers, literacy circles, and collaborative groups with roles.

Grade level/classroom organization needs to allow all English Language Learners to develop the content knowledge necessary for academic English proficiency, as well as the vocabulary that accompanies it and the grammar of English sentence construction.  This means a combination of inclusion classrooms which encourage interaction-based (negotiated) learning, and sheltered English instruction, whether focused on basic acquisition of English, or on the development of content knowledge.

SDAIE and SIOP

Categorically referred to SDAIE (Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English), SIOP (Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol) is the most thoroughly researched version of SDAIE and has been shown to be highly effective in bringing English Language Learners to academic proficiency.

To insure Comprehensible Input consistent with Innatist Theory, teaching and speaking devices such as paraphrasing, repetition of key points, reference to concrete materials, and acting out of meanings are some of the ways teachers can provide comprehensible input while conveying meaning to English Language Learners.  By pairing verbal and nonverbal channels of communication words and meanings become more accessible, and also form the basis for the learner to construct the new language system for herself.  For example, when a maps, globes, and photographs are used in a geography or social studies lesson, the student has more opportunities to take in and to express the new knowledge.  Similarly the use of diagrams and charts in biology lessons, astronomy, or other science lessons creates additional avenues for learning.

Error correction can be carried out in a sensitive and natural way. It is important to keep in mind that there is a natural progression of mastering the grammatical intricacies and ELLs in the early stages of learning will make grammatical errors that do not affect understanding.  There is no reason, at that stage, to correct those errors.  Vocabulary errors which interfere with comprehension are important because it is through mastery of new verbs and nouns that students improve their comprehension of English conversation and instruction, as well as their ability to express themselves clearly.

For example in a third-grade English language development classroom, the children are playing a board game with the teacher standing nearby. One of the children, a beginning in English says, “I putting the marker on the points.”  The teacher does not try to correct the pronoun or verb usage because it does not interfere with comprehension. She might tell the children that “those are called ‘dots’; you are putting the marker on the dots”.

As a useful guide, error correction for beginning English learners, needs to focus on those words which affect comprehension. These are more likely to be remembered and many of the grammatical issues will sort themselves out as the learner gains self-confidence and engages in more frequent communication activities.

Cultural Competence can be taught through role-playing as a way to help students learn both the language and behaviors appropriate to specific social situations.  These can include meeting new friends at a party, using the telephone, applying for a job (older students), going to the doctor, and most important, asking the teacher for assistance.  Even ways of expressing emotions such as sympathy, gratitude, and enthusiasm are all part of developing communicative (cultural) competence in English.

Scaffolding is about making instruction appropriate, within the students’ grasp, and meaningfully engaging. Use of cognates is another way to acclimate second language learners to the English language as they draw as much meaning from context as possible. Provide students with a list of common cognates for reference. Teachers can also point them out explicitly in every day speech, or as opportunities arise within the context of instruction.

Explicit vocabulary instruction is probably the best way we can accelerate students’ academic achievement overall, especially for ELLs. While the push of the Common Core, and many state standards that have aligned to the Common Core, is for learning in context (looking at words within words, whole sentences and paragraphs to unlock new/unknown word meanings), ELL students need focused and explicit vocabulary instruction, especially prior to reading text. Tiered Questions

Using tiered questions, or questions scaffolded by complexity (intentionally) can keep ELL students engaged as more questions are asked the build upon the former. Tiering questions is a way to achieve this. Building them into lessons by differentiating them, for example grouping students and holding them responsible for answers according to their groups. Asking questions throughout each lesson allows them to practice their thinking ahead of time, while better preparing them for assessments when they must think on their own. Tailor questions for each stage of language accordingly.

Example of Tiered Questions: Early Production: yes/no, followed by short phrases. Ask students to point to pictures, books, or objects around the room to depict response and understanding. Speech Emergence: ask questions for short response, such as short constructed response or short answer questions. A one-word response at this phase is no longer appropriate. Why and how questions are appropriate.

Intermediate and Advanced Fluency: Hold students accountable at this stage for longer and more elaborate answers in any setting: whole class, peer-to-peer, student-to-teacher, small group. What might have happened if? And, “Why did you think that?” Are good questions to ask at this stage. Advanced Fluency: Students can retell stories, events, story elements, main ideas, and even make inferences. There continues to be evidence of increased educational attainment when English fluency increases among bilingual and ELL students, particularly when differentiation is used to scaffold and increase achievement (Strand and Demie, 2005; Demie and Strand, 2006; Tomlinson, 2008).